The values of Mazu culture resonate not only with China’s communities but also with peoples across Southeast Asia

When Chinese sailors and merchants crossed dangerous seas to Southeast Asia centuries ago, they carried little with them, but one belief traveled safely: faith in Mazu, widely revered as the Goddess of the Sea.

Mazu is both a symbol of peace and a cultural phenomenon shaped by more than 1,000 years of history. Originating in Putian, Fujian province, during the Song Dynasty (960-1279), the belief in Mazu emerged from coastal communities whose lives depended mainly on the sea.

Over time, what began as local folk worship evolved into a transnational cultural tradition that spread across China’s coastline and deep into Southeast Asia. To this day, more than 10,000 Mazu temples dating from different dynasties can be found across at least 50 countries and regions worldwide, with an estimated 300 million followers. In 2009, the belief and customs associated with Mazu were inscribed by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity, becoming China’s first belief-based world heritage item and a shared spiritual treasure of humankind.

Today, Mazu culture stands as a vivid example of how traditional Chinese culture has traveled beyond national borders, taken root in new environments and engaged in sustained exchanges with local civilizations.

Official recognition in China further elevated Mazu’s status and influence. During the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), particularly under the reigns of emperors Kangxi and Qianlong, Mazu was granted the highest imperial title of Tianhou, or Empress of Heaven. This endorsement strengthened her position in China’s national ritual system and reinforced the legitimacy of her worship overseas. As more Chinese migrated to Southeast Asia during the “journey to Nanyang” or “journey to South Seas” from the late 19th century to the first half of the 20th century, Mazu temples became enduring landmarks in overseas Chinese communities, symbolizing both faith and belonging.

One of the most striking features of Mazu culture is its adaptability. Rather than remaining a closed or exclusive belief system, it actively integrated with local religions, artistic traditions and festive customs across Southeast Asia. Rituals associated with Mazu worship, such as temple fairs, dragon and lion dances, and traditional opera performances, have integrated with local celebratory practices, giving rise to vibrant hybrid forms of folk culture. In Penang, Malaysia, celebrations marking Mazu’s birthday on the 23rd day of the third lunar month often last several days. What was once a relatively inward-looking religious ceremony has evolved into an open, public cultural event, featuring grand processions of Mazu statues that attract participants and spectators from different ethnic and religious backgrounds.

Architecture provides another window into this process of cultural integration. Some of Southeast Asia’s oldest Chinese temples are dedicated to Mazu. The Cheng Hoon Teng Temple in Malacca, Malaysia, built in the 17th century, and the Penang Tian Hou Gong, constructed in the late 19th century by the Hainanese community, combine traditional Chinese architectural principles with local materials and tropical aesthetics.

The result is a distinctive style often described as “Chinese cultural genes with a Nanyang appearance”. These temples are not only places of worship but also historical records of Chinese migration and settlement. From the ancestral temple on Meizhou Island in Fujian province to countless community temples across Southeast Asia, Mazu believers have formed a vast, interconnected network that spans the region and extends worldwide.

Beyond ritual and architecture, Mazu culture functions as a moral and emotional bond linking China and Southeast Asia. The ethical values it conveys — helping those in distress, pursuing peace, respecting nature and fostering social harmony — have long provided overseas Chinese communities with moral guidance and psychological support. Over time, these values have been widely accepted by local societies, transforming Mazu culture into a shared cultural heritage rather than a purely ethnic tradition. In this sense, Mazu serves as a “cultural umbilical cord”, maintaining an ordered and symbolic connection between overseas Chinese communities and the broader Chinese civilization, while also facilitating dialogue among different cultures.

In recent years, Mazu culture has taken on renewed vitality, combining humanistic significance with economic potential. Through creative development and cultural integration, it has formed a multi-faceted model characterized by spiritual meaning at its core, cultural expression as its foundation and economic exchange as its practical extension. In Malaysia, for example, celebrations hosted by the Selangor and Kuala Lumpur Hainan Association’s Tian Hou Temple have introduced innovative elements that make traditional rituals more accessible and public-oriented. By integrating religious ceremonies with academic forums, cultural performances and tourism activities, these events have developed into comprehensive Mazu cultural festivals that generate both cultural influence and economic benefits, while strengthening a sense of shared community.

Digital technology has further expanded the reach of Mazu culture. As part of broader efforts in digital humanities, Mazu has been developed into a recognizable cultural IP. Around this core symbol, a wide range of products and experiences have emerged, including cultural and creative merchandise, educational tours, themed homestays, digital artworks, animations, games and short videos.

In April 2025, the Tianhou Temple in Johor, southern Malaysia, unveiled the world’s first “AI Mazu”, creating a millennia-spanning dialogue between tradition and technology. Dressed in traditional attire, the artificial intelligence deity interprets fortune slips and answers devotees’ questions, bringing Mazu culture into the digital age. Where worshippers once relied on in-person rituals and processions, they can now engage with AI Mazu simply by entering a fortune-slip number. This shift from one-way veneration to two-way interaction shows how technology is reshaping religious practice. More broadly, AI Mazu offers a replicable model that blends cultural tradition with technological innovation and local adaptation, enabling traditional culture to reach global audiences.

Social media platforms have also played a key role in attracting younger generations, including Generation Z and Generation Alpha, encouraging them to engage with traditional culture in new ways. Through this process, Mazu culture is moving from temple-centered worship into everyday life, and from abstract cultural symbolism into tangible cultural consumption.

The transnational spread of Mazu culture offers valuable insights into cultural exchange between China and members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations. It provides shared historical memories and a powerful symbol of peace rooted in maritime history. More than a continuation of past connections, Mazu culture has evolved into a living platform for people-to-people exchanges and mutual learning among civilizations. In this regard, it represents an important cultural link in building a closer China-ASEAN community with a shared future.

From a legendary compassionate young woman in a Chinese coastal village to a globally revered sea goddess, Mazu’s transformation reflects the enduring vitality of traditional Chinese culture. Her cross-border appeal lies in the universal values she represents — benevolence, coexistence and the aspiration for a better life, illustrating how shared human ideals can transcend geography, ethnicity and belief systems, and continue to inspire meaningful connections in a changing world.

Du Guodong is an adjunct fellow at the College of Media and International Culture at Zhejiang University and a PhD researcher at Beijing Foreign Studies University. Liu Wen is an associate professor at Nanning Normal University and a PhD researcher at Beijing Foreign Studies University.

The authors contributed this article to China Watch, a think tank powered by China Daily. The views do not necessarily reflect those of China Daily.

Contact the editor at editor@chinawatch.cn.